Ancient Chinese Diplomacy
In the eleventh year of the Duke, during the spring of the third month, the Duke returned from Jin. The Marquis of Jin sent Xi Chou on a diplomatic mission. On the day of Ji Chou, Xi Chou made an alliance with the Duke. In the summer, Ji Sun Hangfu visited Jin. In autumn, Shu Sun Qiaoru went to Qi. In winter, during the tenth month, these events unfolded.
During the eleventh year, in spring, the Duke returned from Jin. The people of Jin believed the Duke was leaning towards Chu, so they detained him. The Duke requested to be part of an alliance before being allowed to return. Xi Chou arrived to negotiate and oversee the alliance.
Sheng Bo’s mother was not officially married, and Mu Jiang stated, “I will not recognize a concubine as a wife.” Sheng Bo was born and later dismissed, leading to her marriage to Guan Yuxi in Qi. She bore two sons and became widowed, returning to Sheng Bo. Sheng Bo made her cousin a minister and married her sister to Shi Xiaoshu. When Xi Chou arrived, he requested a wife from Sheng Bo, who forcibly took Shi Xiaoshu’s wife for him. The woman lamented, “Even birds and beasts do not lose their mates; what will you do?” Sheng Bo replied, “I cannot die for this.” The woman went on to marry Xi Chou and bore him two sons. When the Xi family fell, the people of Jin returned her to the Shi family. Shi’s family met her at the river and drowned her two sons. The woman, enraged, declared, “You failed to protect your spouse and let them perish. Now, you kill orphans; how will this end?” She vowed vengeance against the Shi family.
In the summer, Ji Wenzi went to Jin to respond to the diplomatic mission and oversee the alliance. The Duke of Zhou despised the pressures from Huai and Xiang, and having failed to win in political struggles, he left in anger. He reached Yangfan, and the King sent Liuzi to bring him back. They formed an alliance at Juan, and he reentered the state. After three days, he fled to Jin again.
In autumn, Xuan Bo visited Qi to maintain previous relations. Jin’s envoy, Xi Zhi, competed with Zhou over the lands of Hou Tian. The King appointed Liu Kang and Dan Xiang to argue the case in Jin. Xi Zhi asserted, “Wen has always belonged to us, and we dare not lose it.” Liu and Dan countered, “When Zhou defeated Shang, the nobles were entrusted with lands. Su Fensheng was made chief of Wen, with Tan Boda and others guarding the river boundaries. Su’s family fell to the Di, then fled to Wei. King Xiang rewarded Duke Wen by granting him Wen. The Hu and Yang families settled there first before reaching you. If we trace the origin, it is a royal domain. How can you claim it?” The Marquis of Jin instructed Xi Zhi not to contest further.
Song’s envoy, Hua Yuan, was friendly with the Chu official Zichong and the Jin official Luan Wuzi. Hearing that Chu had allowed Jin to buy grain and intended to attack Cheng, he reported back. In winter, Hua Yuan visited Chu and then Jin to unify the peace between Jin and Chu. Qin and Jin aimed to meet in Linghu for a treaty. The Marquis of Jin arrived first, but the Earl of Qin refused to cross the river, staying in Wangcheng. He sent Shi Ke to make an alliance with the Marquis of Jin on the east side of the river. Jin’s envoy, Xi Chou, made an alliance with the Earl of Qin on the west side of the river. Fan Wenzi remarked, “What use is this alliance? The purpose of alliances is trust. The meeting place is the beginning of trust. If trust does not begin, how can it be substantiated?” The Earl of Qin returned and broke the alliance with Jin.
Analysis of Diplomatic Relations in Ancient China
The passage showcases a complex network of diplomatic relations and the intricacies of statecraft in ancient China. It highlights several key aspects:
Diplomatic Missions: Diplomatic missions were common, involving envoys traveling between states to negotiate alliances, respond to previous missions, and maintain relations. These missions were crucial for fostering mutual understanding and cooperation.
Alliances and Treaties: Alliances were formalized through ceremonies and agreements. These alliances were not only political but also social contracts, emphasizing the importance of trust and mutual obligation. The failure of trust could lead to the dissolution of these agreements, as seen with the alliance between Jin and Qin.
Political Maneuvering: The passage illustrates the strategic political maneuvering required to maintain and expand power. States like Jin and Zhou engaged in territorial disputes, diplomatic negotiations, and strategic marriages to consolidate their influence.
Social and Ethical Considerations: Social and ethical norms played a significant role in diplomatic relations. The story of Sheng Bo and the woman forcibly taken as a wife underscores the importance of marital loyalty and the severe consequences of violating these norms.
Legacy and Vengeance: The actions of individuals had long-lasting effects on their legacy and the perception of their family. The woman’s vow of vengeance against the Shi family for killing her sons highlights the enduring nature of personal grievances and their impact on diplomatic relations.
Cultural Values: The passage reflects broader cultural values, such as the importance of loyalty, honor, and duty. These values were central to the functioning of the state and the maintenance of social order.
In conclusion, the diplomatic relations in ancient China were characterized by a delicate balance of power, strategic alliances, and adherence to cultural and ethical norms. The complex interplay of political, social, and personal factors shaped the landscape of ancient Chinese diplomacy, as illustrated by the intricate narratives and events described in the passage. Understanding these dynamics provides valuable insights into the governance and social structure of ancient Chinese civilization.